各种组织生命周期理论模型

道恩斯：成长动力模型

Downs: Motivation for Growth

作为最早的模型之一，道恩斯的成长动力模型专注于政府机构的生命周期。在用四种不同方法描述了管理机构是如何产生之后，他提出了政府机构会经历的三种主要的增长和发展阶段。第一阶段，为自主权斗争阶段，大多产生在组织正式的诞生之前或之后不久。在这个阶段组织会极力尝试去从外部环境中获取合法性和所需要的资源，以达到“生存门槛”。第二阶段是快速增长阶段，包括快速扩张和对创新的重视。最后阶段主要是通过实施精耕细作的正式的规则和流程而达成的分权，这些规则和流程的制定重视可预见性和相互合作。简单来说，道恩斯模型关注了政府组织从合法创立，到创新和扩张，最后到正规化和控制这一过程。

里皮特和施米德特：关键管理因素

Lippitt and Schmidt: Critical Managerial Concern

里皮特和施米德特发展出了最早的私有制领域内的生命周期理论模型。他们提出公司发展经历了三个阶段：

（1）初生期：建立运营系统，学习更好的生存

（2）青年期：发展稳定性与声望

（3）成熟期：通过领域的扩张形成独特的、适应力强的个体

该模型叙述了六个主要影响组织进程变革的管理因素。在初生期，主要事件是系统的创造和达到生存门槛。在青年期阶段，主要事件是取得稳定和声望。在成熟期，拥有独特性和积极回应多样性的社会需求成了主要事件。

史考特：战略和结构

Scott: Strategy and Structure

史考特的公司生命周期理论以他在Chandler的调研为基础。这个模型的确立了三个不同类型的但又构成一个历史循环的公司形式。在第一阶段组织被描述为很小或者没有正式结构，单一的产品，个人控制和家长式回报。在第二阶段组织被描述为功能性分工，寻求制度化和非个人奖惩系统。在第三阶段，组织拥有复数的生产线，多样化的产品市场和研发、成长性、适应性导向。简单来说，史考特的模型揭示了公司从非正式的“一人秀”，到形成官僚体系，最后变成多样化的集团的进程。

葛莱奈：进化和变革问题

Greiner: Problems Leading to Evolution and Revolution

另一个早期的私有制领域内的组织发展模型是由葛莱奈提出的。他的模型认为组织进化有五个连续性的阶段，每一个都伴随着整体变革或者由于几个主要的组织性问题的产生而带来的迅速变化时期。只有通过解决每个发展阶段固有问题组织才能够成功晋级到下一个更为成熟的阶段。

组织要从创业和创新阶段（第一阶段）走出来，必须克服由于对合理化组织行为的需求而产生的领导力危机。在第二阶段——成长依靠指导或者合理的领导——的进程中必须去克服独立性危机。该危机来自于对分权决策的需要。第三阶段——成长通过被授权者在拥有自主权的二级单位中非整体目标开始浮现时突然遭遇的控制危机。组织克服这个危机以前进到第四阶段——通过协调配合来成长（比如组织再造、正式的计划、项目小组）——直到遇上另一个危机，官僚作风。它使得组织向下一阶段——依靠合作来成长——进发。在葛莱奈的模型中合作指矩阵型设计，自主管理和不断增强的组织灵活性。第五阶段的主要危机是信息过载和精神饱和。但是葛莱奈并没有明确给出该危机的解决方案。简略来说，葛莱奈的模型从强调创新和创业阶段移动到正式化阶段最后到适应性和灵活性。

托伯特：成员精神理论

Torbert: Mentality of Members

托伯特创立了一个构建于组织成员个人精神理论之上的模型。随着成员因果因素和运营能力意识的提高，发展出更强大的个人能力和高效的人际关系能力，组织不断的进步。托伯特并没有明确指出组织会怎样从一个阶段前进到另一个阶段。相反，他描述了成功的高水准的组织所能够达到的机能是怎么样的。这个模型按照前期阶段的单一个体，非正式组织，融合成以小组为单位到产生聚合意识顺序前进。随后，固定的规则和结构占据主导地位，直到为了更好的适应环境产生的革新发生。

莱登：功能性问题

Lyden: Functional Problems

莱登的模型是以帕森的组织功能性问题为基础。他提出在组织的发展过程中，应当在不同的阶段重点关注不同的功能性问题。功能性问题是指适应环境、获取资源，达成目标和榜样维持。莱登认为对于一个新组织首先要关注的是去适应和创立一个基于外部环境的利基市场。通常通过创新来达成（在高度常规化和稳定的外部环境中，莱登提出达成目标是最重要的，但这种情况很少）。第二阶段，组织重视资源获取能力和工作流程的开发。第三阶段，重点要调整为目标的达成和产品生产的高效率。最后第四阶段，组织必须重视维持这种良好的情况，并且使得结构制度化。总体来说，这种发展模式是将重点从创新和利基市场探寻（niche generation）逐渐转移到稳定性和制度化。

卡兹和康汉：组织化结构

Katz and Kahn: Organizational Structure

卡兹和康汉的模型是以逐渐发展的复杂周密的组织结构为基础的。他们提出了组织生命周期的三个发展阶段。第一阶段称为原始系统阶段（primitive system stage），在这阶段形成了建立于组织成员之间努力合作之上的初步的生产系统。第二阶段称为稳定组织阶段（stable organization stage），关注于合作和控制行为。为了规范组织日常的行为，从而产生了一个权威系统和一个维持系统。一个非正式的结构也在这个阶段产生。卡兹和康汉提出的第三和最后阶段是精耕细作阶段（elaboration of structure），此时为了应付外界环境，会建立起一种适应性的结构。

阿迪兹：主要组织行为

Adizes: Major Organizational Activities

阿迪兹的组织发展模型指出，组织的阶段变化是因为对四种行为关注度的变化。这四种行为是产出结果（P），创业行为（ E），管理正式规则和流程（A），将个体融入组织（I）。该组织生命周期模型是唯一一个将成熟阶段和衰退阶段同时考虑进去的模型。简单来说，该模型指出组织发展要经历独特的阶段，从幼小到成熟，他们又会衰退到独特的阶段，又从成熟到死亡。这去取决于对四种不同行为的重视程度。从一个阶段到另一个阶段的进程的发生主要取决于是否解决了阶段中的主要问题。该模型中的组织从关注创业行为（E）开始，接着变成同时又关注产出结构（P）。随着不断向成熟阶段的靠近，正规化、管理行为和整合重点优先。发生组织衰退主要因为过度关注稳定性、管理、规则和过程。

金伯利: 内部社会控制，工作结构和环境关系

Kimberly: Internal Social Control, Structure of Work, and Environmental Relations

金伯利针对医学院创立和发展的研究提供了另一个组织发展模型。金伯利提出在组织发展过程中第一个可辨认的阶段发生在组织真正成立之前。它涉及到资源到位和意识形态的形成。这导致了第二阶段包括倡导者的选择、招募员工和建立起来自于战略支持者的支持。第三阶段涉及到形成组织标识、组织成员高的感情和物质投入、高的成员责任感、追求相同的主要组织使命和价值观形成的凝聚力。第四阶段指政策和规定变得固定而产生的制度化，变得正规化的组织结构，尽管组织对外界环境需作出反应，它还是变得更保守和可预见性。

An Integration of Nine Life Cycle Models
	1.Entrepreneurial Stage	2.Collectivity Stage	3.Formalization and Control Stage	4.Elaboration of Structure Stage
Summary Model	Marshalling of resources Lots of ideas Entrepreneurial activities Little planning and coordination Formation of a “niche” “Prime mover” has power	Informal communication and structure Sense of collectivity Long hours spent Sense of mission Innovation continues High commitment	Formalization of rules Stable structure Emphasis on efficiency and maintenance Conservatism Institutionalized procedures	Elaboration of structure Decentralization Domain expansion Adaptation Renewal
Motivation for Growth	Struggle for Autonomy Stage	Rapid Growth Stages	Deceleration Stage
Downs	Legitimize the function to the external environment Obtain autonomy from parent or competing bureaus Stabilize resources Achieve survival threshold	Innovators and climbers have control Emphasis on innovation and expansion Occurrence of an “age lump”in membership	Increased size and complexity causes coordination problems Innovation is deemphasized Smoothness and predictability are emphasized “Conserves” have control Formalized and elaborate role systems Reduced flexibility
Critical Managerial Concerns	Birth		Youth	Maturity
Lippitt&Schmidt	One-man rule Short-range perspective Concerned with survival Confidence in personal abilities Personal control		Emphasis on stability and service Team decision making Efficiency emphasized Goal setting and planning occur Systematic control	Emphasis on adaptability Contribution to society is valued Growth opportunities are sought
Strategy and Structure	Stage 1		Stage 2	Stage 3
Scott	One-man rule Paternalistic reward system Subjective evaluation criteria No formal structure		Functional specialization Institutionalized procedures Systematic reward system Impersonal evaluation Formalized structure	Diversified product markets Search for new products and growth opportunities Semi-autonomous divisionalized structure
Problems leading to Evolution and Revolution		Creativity Stage	Direction Stage	Delegation Stage
Greiner		Emphasis on producing a product Long hours or work with modest rewards Informal communication and structure	Functional structure established Accounting system set up Specialization of tasks Formalized rules and policies	Decentralization of structure Decision making pushed lower the hierarchy Management by exception
				Coordination Stage
				New systems arise Product groups form Long term planning Profit sharing programs
				Collaboration Stage
				Team action Spontaneity in management Confrontation in interpersonal problems Self discipline Multi-purpose systems set up
Mentality of Members	Fantasies Stage	Investment Stage	Experiments Stage	Openly Chosen Structure Stage
Torbert	Individual visions and fantasies Free floating conversation Diffused perceptions by members	High investment by individual No clear leadership style Validity and depth of commitment examined Determination Stage Group goals and structure set up Group unity prevalent Psychological contracts set up	Plans,schedules,roles,and governance established Rational decision making	Collaboration among levels Reflection about deeper issues Creativity and innovative methods Flexibility in procedures
			Predefined Productivity Stage
			Focus on task performance as defined by others Fixed rules, structures and authority system
				Foundational Community Stage
				Shared spiritual, behavioral, and theoretical qualities among members Organization becomes a spiritual community
				Liberating Disciplines Stage
				Individuals and the organization are engaged in self renewal Inclusive not exclusive boundaries Organization seeks challenges
Functional Problems	First Stage		Third Stage
Lyden	Emphasis on adaptation to the external environment		Emphasis on goal attainment
	Second Stage		Fourth Stage
	Emphasis on resources acquisition		Emphasis on pattern maintenance and institutionalization
Organizational Structure		Primitive System Stage	Stable Organization Stage	Elaborative Supportive Structures Stage
Katz and Kahn		Cooperation endeavors based on common needs and expectations of members	Coordination and formalization Authority systems arise Informal structure arises Rule enforcement Maintenance systems arise	Adaptation systems are formed procurement systems, disposal systems institutional relations system
Major Organizational Activities	Courtship Stage	Intent Organization Stage	Adolescent Organization Stage
Adizes	Founders are dreaming up＂what we might do＂ Entrepreneurial activities	Emphasis on production Time pressures keenly felt No tradition Few meeting Little planning	Planning and coordination are important Administrative activities increase at the expense of entrepreneurial activities and production Stability and conservatism Formalized rules and policies
		Go-Go Organization Stage	Prime Organization Stage
		Rapid expansion Personalized leadership Some planning Fast, frequent, intuitive decision making	Emphasis of efficiency Increasing loss of touch with the environment Thick organization boundaries Aspirations remain stable, no desire to grow or change Stability and predictability are valued
			Maturity Stage
			Paternalistic, comfortable organizational climate Low emphasis on production Formalized relationships Little innovation
Internal Social Control, Structure of Work and Environmental Relations	First Stage	Second Stage	Fourth Stage
Kimberly	Marshalling or resources Creation of an ideology	Obtaining support for the external environment Choice of a “prime mover” Staffing of the organization Frequent, discrete decisions are made	Formalized structure Policies and rules set up Internal organizational competition Stabilized external relations Conservative trend High personal investment questioned
		Third Stage
		Formation of identity Sense of collectivity of family High member commitment and involvement in the organization Pursuit of organization mission Postponing individual need fulfillment temporarily